The Maldives and “the beginning of the season”: can we guess the sailing month mentioned in Madmūn b. Ḥasan’s letter?
Nazim Sattar
T-S 18J2.7 verso
The Maldives are mentioned once as al-Diū in S. D. Goitein’s India Book,1 which was corrected to al-Dyyb by Mordechai Akiva Friedman, the co-author of the book. The word, al-Dyyb אלדייב comes up in a letter from Madmūn b. Ḥasan, in Aden, to Avraham Ibn Yiju2 in India, ca. 1130s3 (verso line 11). The Princeton Geniza Project (PGP) transcription of the letter is as follows:
1. ותתפצל ותכץ עני סוס סיתי וכנאבתי [[ואסחא]]
2. ואסחאק אלבאניאן אפצל אלסלאם ותערפהם
3. שוקי אליהם ותעלמהם עני באן אלפלפל פי
4. הדה אלסנה אלאתיה יכן (!) קימתה סער אלבהאר
5. בתלאתין דינאר ואזיד מן דלך ואלחדיד
6. אלמחדת ליס ינקץ אלבהאר מן עשרין דינאר
7. ואלרקץ אלדי כאן פי אלבלד קד פרג גמיעה
8. פאן קדרו אן יגהזו מרכב מן מנגלור
9. ויגעלו פיה מא אתפק מן אלפלפל ואלחדיד
10. ואלכבאבה ואלזנגביל ויכרג אול אלזמאן אלי
11. אלדייב יאכד קליל קנבאר ואכרבה
12. ונואשך ונארגיל פגמיע דלך נאפק מביוע
Armed with Goitein’s English translation, my Arabic rendition of this part of the letter is below:4
1. وتتفضل وتخض عني سوس سيتي وكنابتي [[واسحا]]
2. واسحاق البانيان أفضل السلام وتعرفهم
3. شوقي إليهم وتعلمهم عني بان الفلفل في
4. هذه السنه الآتية يكن (!) قيمته سعر البهار
5. بثلاثين دينار وأزيد من ذلك والحديد
6. المحدث ليس ينقص البهار من عشرين دينار
7. والرقص الذي كان في البلد قد فرج جميعة
8. فان قدرو ان يجهزو مركب من منجلور
9. وتجعلو فيه ما اتفق من الفلفل والحديد
10. والكبابة والزنجبيل ويخرج أول الزمان إلى
11. الديب يأخذ قليل قنبار واكربه
12. ونواشك ونارجيل فجميع ذلك نافق مبيوع
Here is Goitein’s translation:
[Verso (in Maḍmūn’s hand)]
(1) Please give Sūs Sītī and Kinbātī {read: Kinābtī} [[and Isḥā . . . ]]
(2) and Isḥāq the Bānyān my best regards, and tell them
(3) of my longing for them. Inform them in my name that as for pepper, in
(4) this coming year its value, (that is) the price per bahār, will be
(5) 30 dinars, and more, and as for refurbished iron,
(6) a bahār will be (worth) not less than 20 dinars,
(7) and that the (supply of) raqṣ (shining, glittering iron), which was in the city, is completely exhausted.
(8) And if they can they should dispatch a ship from Mangalore,
(9) and send in it any available pepper, iron,
(10) cubeb, and ginger; it should set out at the first opportunity {alt. tr.: at the beginning of the season}5 for
(11) al-Dyyb (Diū) {alt. tr.: Maldives} taking {alt. tr.: to take} some coir (coconut fiber), some aloe wood,
(12) mango (?), and coconuts, because all these are selling well…
Apart from this single letter of Madmūn, Maldives are not mentioned in the India Book.
Now, the term awwal al-zamān in the letter intrigued me, which the co-author of the India Book, Mordechai Akiva Friedman, translated as “at the beginning of the season” instead of Goitein’s “at the first opportunity”.
In the subsequent footnote, referring to awwal al-zamān, Friedman writes that this term, along with similar phrases like “awwal al-waqt” (the beginning of the time), “waqt infitāh al-bahr” (the time of the opening of the sea), and “awwal jihāz” (the beginning of the fleet), in the Geniza documents, consistently refer to the start of the seafaring season [rather than “at the first opportunity”].
Awwal al-zamān
According Seafaring in the Arabian Gulf and Oman there were two south-west navigational periods in the in the Western Indian Ocean and a closed season:
The first started towards the end of March or beginning of April to mid-August, when the major Indian ports were closed due to severe winds which hit the Indian coasts, in particular the Malabar coast. Arabian and Iranian dhows would have left the Indian coast by early April, as Indian vessels return to their home ports before mid-May …
The monsoon winds blow suddenly and violently, starting on the coast of Colombo (Sri Lanka) by May, drifting northwards along the Malabar coast to Mumbai by the second week of June, and reaching Karachi by the end of June. From June to early August, the Southern Arabian were also sometimes closed due to the winds and navigating dhows to the East African coast was difficult…
The second navigational season, called dāmānī or dimānī (<Per) started at the end of August and went to the end of September, a time when the South West Indian and Southern Arabian ports were opened, also referred as al-mawsim al-kabīr “the great season”. When the main season was opened, it was often called awwal zamān (the beginning of the period) and towards the end of it, ākhir zamān (the last of the period). By late summer the Indian fleet called on Aden started their return home to the Indian coast.
The north-east monsoon season was known as mawsim azyab, starting at the beginning of October and finishing at the end of March, with favourable winds blowing from Pakistan and Baluchistan, such winds are generally consistent. It was the best season for dhows to sail to Africa. This was a much easier wind to follow and it had the most active dhow traffic of the year, as Basra dates were shipped off from the Shatt al Arab to Southern Arabia and East Africa. Sailing, therefore, was westward from Pakistan-India to the Gulf and Oman and Southern Arabia and from the Gulf to Southern Arabia and East Africa.
The Perso-Arabian dhows sailed southwards to Lamu and Mombasa, bringing back mangrove-poles on their return journey. With the south-west monsoonal change, the homeward journey started in April when the South Equatorial Current blows favourably.6
Based on this, we can assume awwal al-zamān meant “at the beginning of the season” as rendered by Friedman.7
Awwalu mūsun
Now, in Maldives, until the beginning of sea transport mechanization in the 1970s, the (non-domestic) sailing season was called awwalu mūsun (އައްވަލު މޫސުން) [lit. “first monsoon”].8 The term appears to belong to the same family of expressions in the Geniza documents, as those mentioned in Friedman's footnote.
Awwalu mūsun is attested by several historical documents we have. Dhivehi Tārikha° Au Alikame° [A New Light on the History of Maldives], has a transcript of an Arabic missive9 sent by Sultan Hassan Izz al-Dīn to the Dutch Governor of Ceylon on 7th May 1760.10 The letter states:
الحمد لله وحده
من مولانا السلطان الغازي حسن عزالدين سلمه الله تعالى والى بندر ديبا الى بندر كلب و الى كوندور . سلمه الله تعالى وابقاه قد وصل إلينا من اسلافكم سلف واحد بعون الله تعالى قد حفظناه كما سبق فيما بيننا و بينكم الإخوة والمحبة ولا أخذنا منهم شيئ بل اعطيناهم بما طلبوا منا القوت الرز الماء والحطب وغير وأرسلنا إليكم أول الموسم وطول عمركم وهذا حرر يوم ٢٢ شهر رمضان جلي ١١٧٣.
Praise be to God alone
From our Lord Sultan Al-Ghāzī Hassan Izz al-Dīn, may God Almighty grant him peace, to Port Dībā11 (Maldives), to Port Kalb (Colombo), and to the Governador.12 May God Almighty grant him peace and preserve him. One sloop13 [Ar. salf]14 had reached us from among your sloops, with the help of God Almighty. In accordance with our longstanding brotherhood and love, we ensured its safety. We did not take anything from them, but rather we gave them what they asked of us in sustenance, rice, water, firewood, and other things. We returned it to you in the first season… and may you enjoy longevity. Written on the 22nd of the current month of Ramadan 1173.
Apart from the fact that the royal Maldivian scribe inserted an implied pun by calling the port of Colombo as “kalb” (ie. dog), the letter is very cordial and does not mention that by Maldivian law all foreign vessels that wash adrift to the Maldives belonged to the Sultan.15 In fact, the letter specifically says His Highness the Sultan had allowed the Dutch vessel to leave at the “first season” (أول الموسم).16
A second transcript of a letter on page 442 of the New Light on the History of Maldives, is printed in Dhivehi in Thaana script. This letter is sent by Sultan Muhammad Muīn Al-Dīn to the British Governor of Ceylon in the early decades of 1800s.
السلطان محمد معين الدين إسكندر ކުލަސުންދުރަ ކަތްތިރި ބޮވަނަ މަހާރަދުން ކޮޅުބު ރަސްގެފާނައް މިތައް ލައްކަ ހާސް ފަށުން دعا سلام މަނިކުފާނުމެންގެ ކޮޅުބުގައި އިހު އުޅުއްވި ރަސްރަސްކަލުންނާއި މި ދިވެހިރާއްޖޭ ރަސްރަސްކަލުންނާއި رحمة ތެރިކަން ބެހެއްޓިފަދައިންމެ رحمة ތެރިކަން ބަހައްޓަވައިގެން ހުންނެވީމެވެ. މި ދެވހިރާއްޖެއަށް عدا ވާތް ތެރިއަކު މަނިކުފާނުމެންނައް އެގިއްޖެނަމަ އެބަޔަކަށް މަނިކުފާނުމެން ނުރުއްސެވުމާއި، މި ދެވެހިރާއްޖެއިން އޮޑިއެއް ދޯންޏެއް ބެހިގެންގޮސް މަނިކުފާނުމެންނަށް خبر އިވޭ ތަނަކު ތިބިނަމަ އެ ބަޔަކު ގެންދަވައި އެމީހުންގެ ހައިހޫނުކަން ބެއްލެވުމާއި، މަނިކުފާނުމެންނާއި އަރަފޯދިގެންނުވާ ކުޑަ ހަދިޔާކޮޅަކާއި محمد ކޭވީ ތިބާފޮނުވީމު. މި އަޅުންގެ ކިބައިން ތަخސީރެއް ވިއަސް معف ކުރައްވައި އައްވަލު މޫސުމުގައި ފުރުވާކަމަށް އެދިވަޑައިގެން ހުންނެވީމު ١١٣٧ [.sic]
Here's my transliteration:
al-sulṭān muḥammad mu'īn al-dīn iskandar kula sundura kaiytiri bavana mahāradun koḷunbu rasgefāna° mita° lakka hās faṣun du'ā salām. Manikufānumenge koḷunbu gai ihu uḷuvvi rasraskalunnāi mi divehi-rājjey rasraskalunnāi raḥmat-terikan behetṭi fadain-me raḥmat-terikan bahattavaigen hunnevīmeve. Mi divehi-rājjeya° 'adāvāt-teriaku manikufānumenna° engijje nama e bayaka° manikufānumen nurussevumāi, mi divehi-rājjeyn oḍie° dōnye° behigen-gos manikufānumenna° khabar ivey tanaku tibinama e bayaku gendavai emīhunge hai-hūnukan bellevumāi, manikufānumennāi ara fōdigennuvā kuḍa hadiyā koḷakāi Muḥammad Keyvee tibā fonuvīmu. Mi aḷunge kibayin takhṣīre° viyas ma'āf kuravvai avvalu mūsumugai furuvā kama° edi vaḍaigengen hunnevīmu 1137.
Here's the English translation of the text:
Sultan Muhammad Muīn al-Dīn Iskandar, of the highest race, of the Kshatriya [caste], Mighty Monarch of the Universe sends many hundred thousands of prayers and peaceful greetings to the King of Colombo. We maintain the same compassionate relationship with you as was maintained between the previous kings of Colombo and the kings of the Maldives. If you become aware of any enemies of the Maldives, we request that you do not favour them. If any Maldivian odi or dhoni are stranded and you receive news of their whereabouts, we ask you to retrieve them and attend to their hunger. We have sent Muhammad Kayvee with a small gift that is unworthy of your stature. If there are any shortcomings on their part, we request that you forgive them. We hope that you will arrange for their departure ‘in the first season’ (awwalu mūsumu gai). 1131[ sic]17
The term mawsim (div. mūsun) means “the actual date for sailing from a port in order to reach another” according to G. R. Tibbetts in Arab Navigation in the Indian Ocean before the Coming of the Portuguese (1981).
The term mawsim was not usually given to the duration of the wind’s season in the manner in which we use the term monsoon or even to the type of wind, but only to the sailing dates and these were named after the port, ie. mawsim al-ẓafārī (ie. the man sailing from Ẓafar)… Collectively they were mawāsim al-asfār, ie. seasons for travelling.18
Tibbetts’ definition of mawsim seems to be closer with Goitein’s translation of the Geniza letter’s awwal al-zamān, ie. “at the first opportunity”; rather than Friedman’s “at the beginning of the season”. Tibbetts says the “term mawsim was not usually given to the duration of the wind’s season in the manner in which we use the term monsoon”. But contrary to this, the Maldivian term awwalu mūsun or awwal al-mawsim, attested in the above documents, seem to reflect the duration of a specific season, rather than “seasons [plural] for travelling” (mawāsim al-asfār) mentioned by Tibbetts.
The last Sultan of the Maldives arriving at Thoddoo Island in 1963 (photo from the Dhivehi Archives of Naajih Didi, Maldives)
When is awwalu mūsun?
Unfortunately, the Dhivehi dictionary does not have an entry for awwalu mūsun. But from the recorded missives dispatched between 1722 and 1824 by Maldive sultans to the governors of Ceylon we can glean that the royal tribute ship set sail from Maldives between September to December, and most of the letters request the governor to return the ship back to the Maldives during the same awwalu mūsun. Also, given that the May 1760 Arabic letter says that the stranded Dutch sloop was returned to Ceylon in awwal al-mawsim (late 1759 or early 1760), we know that there was two-way travel during this season.
While the Dhivehi dictionary lacks a specific entry for awwalu mūsun, it does include a related term: vai-enburē mūsun, which translates to “wind-turning season”.
According to the Dhivehi dictionary’s definition of “wind-turning season”, it points to two periods when the two monsoon winds transition. The dictionary says this occurs during two specific time frames:
1. When the southwest wind turns, during the nakaiy (Sanskrit: Nakshatra; Arabic: manzil al-qamar) of Nora (Sanskrit: Anurādhā) or Doṣa (Sanskrit: Jyeshthā).
2. When the northeast wind turns, during Rēva (Sanskrit: Revati) or Assida (Sanskrit: Ashvini).
According to the dictionary, the nakaiy of Nora starts on November 14. This corresponds with the Arabic lunar mansion (manzil al-qamar) of al-iklīl that occurs on 14th November (for the calculations, see here). According to Ibn Mājid's (d. 906/1500) Kitab al-fawāid fi usūl al-bahr wa al-qawāid (Book of Benefits in the Principles of Navigation) the lunar mansion al-iklīl rises at dawn on the first day of the Nairūz (Persian. Nawrūz) year. The translator of Ibn Mājid’s treatise, G. R. Tibbetts says the first day of Nairūz was 14th November during 1488 around the time of Ibn Mājid’s lifetime.19
As for the turning of the northeast wind, the Dhivehi dictionary says that the turning begins in the nakaiy of Rēva, and that Rēva starts on March 26. However, our Dhivehi-Arabic dictionary of 1937 gives,20 the lunar mansion Rēva’s Arabic equivalent as rishā21 which Ibn Mājid says rises at dawn after the 143rd day of the Nairūz year (April 6).22
So, we can draw the following conclusions about awwalu mūsun in the Maldives:
1. The Maldivian sailing season of awwalu mūsun (the first season) appears to be distinct from, and occurs later than, the awwal al-zamān mentioned in the Geniza letter.
2. While awwal zamān refers to the period at the end of August to September, when major Indian Ocean ports reopened after the southwest monsoon, the Maldivian awwalu mūsun seems to correspond more closely with the next phase of the sailing season: ‘mawsim azyab’.
3. Mawsim azyab, or the northeast monsoon season, is described in “Seafaring in the Arabian Gulf and Oman” as starting at the beginning of October23 and finishing at the end of March. This period was characterized by favorable winds blowing from Pakistan and Baluchistan, making it the best season for dhows to sail to Africa.
4. While the official Maldivian northeast monsoon season (Div. iruvai) starts on 10th December, the Maldivian awwalu mūsun appears to begin before December.
5. The timing of awwalu mūsun aligns with the Maldivian dictionary's definition of vai-enburē mūsun (wind-turning season), which mentions the turning of the southwest wind around November 14 (nakaiy of Nora).
6. This 14th November date is significant as it corresponds with the Arabic lunar mansion (manzil al-qamar) of al-iklīl and the first day of the Nairūz year in Ibn Mājid's time.
7. The historical missives from Maldivian sultans mentioning awwalu mūsun as a time for ships to set sail and also return from Ceylon further supports the idea that this was a recognized and anticipated period for maritime travel.
8. The end of awwalu mūsun appears to be associated with the rising of al-Rishā (also known as Batn al-Hūt). The Dhivehi-Arabic dictionary equates the Dhivehi nakaiy of Rēva with the Arabic Rishā, both of which are associated with the turning of the northeast wind. The dictionary states Rēva occurs around 26th March, while Ibn Mājid notes that al-Rishā rises at dawn after the 143rd day of the year (approximately April 6).
Conclusion
Our analysis suggests that both Madmūn b. Ḥasan and Avraham Ibn Yiju were aware that the Maldivian sailing season started after the general Indian Ocean awwal al-zamān. Madmūn’s letter requests Ibn Yiju to dispatch a ship from Mangalore, at the beginning of the season to the Maldives and having loaded coir (coconut fibre), some aloes wood and coconuts [and to sail from there to Africa]. They would have known awwal al-zamān opened around the 287th day of the Nawrūz year which is around the 24th August. They would have also known awwal al-zamān closed by the the end of the lunar mansion al-‘Awwā (end of September).24
Therefore, it necessarily follows that the merchants understood that awwal al-zamān was not synonymous with the Maldivian sailing season. In other words, they knew that their vessel, having shopped from India in August, could then sail to Maldives and do early seasonal shopping there before sailing to Africa in November, when the northeast monsoon (mawsim azyab) would provide favorable winds.
While we cannot prove that they knew that the Maldivian season started on the first day of the Persian calendar (14th November) it is fairly certain that Madmūn calculated that the potential Mangalore ship will reach Africa in November.
Based on the evidence presented throughout this study, including the descriptions of sailing seasons in “Seafaring in the Arabian Gulf and Oman”, the Maldivian concept of awwalu mūsun, and the timing of the Arabic lunar mansions, we can conclude that the awwal al-zamān referred to in Madmūn b. Ḥasan's letter likely corresponded to August or September of (the given year) in the 1130s, and that their ship was destined to reach Africa by the end of November.
Footnotes
1 S. D. Goitein and Mordechai Akiva Friedman, India traders of the middle ages: documents from the Cairo Geniza: India book (2008), vol. 2. p. 315.
2 Incidentally Avraham Ibn Yiju is the leading figure in Amitav Ghosh’s “In an Antique Land”.
3 Letter from Maḍmun b. Ḥasan to Avraham Ibn Yiju: three fragments of two copies. Aden, ca. 1130s. https://geniza.princeton.edu/en/documents/5438/
4 With thanks to the anonymous reviewers for correcting my Arabic transliteration of the Judeo-Arabic Hebrew text.
5 Emphasis is mine.
6 Dionisius A. Agius, Seafaring in the Arabian Gulf and Oman: The People of the Dhow (London: Kegan Paul, 2005), p. 195.
7 Arab navigator Ibn Mājid’s (d. 906/1500) in his treatise on navigation uses the word “zamān” to mean the North East monsoon, that, according to him starts on the 310th day of Nairuz (28th September). Tibbetts, Gerald R., Arab Navigation in the Indian Ocean before the Coming of the Portuguese: Being a Translation of Kitāb al-fawā'id fī uṣūl al-baḥr wa'l-qawā'id of Aḥmad b. Mājid al-Najdī. London: The Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1981. First published 1971, p. 360.
8 Having examined 9 dispatches from Maldives to Ceylon between 1722 and 1824 I have translated awwalu mūsun (އައްވަލު މޫސުން) as the “first season” rather than “the beginning of the season”. While grammatically أول الموسم mentioned in the Sultan’s 1760 Arabic letter is an idāfa construction which renders its meaning as “the first of the season” rather than “the first season”; many of the Dhivehi dispatches have the Dhivehi equivalent awwalu mūsun (އައްވަލު މޫސުން) which is an adjective-noun phrase rather than a genitive construction. The adjective-noun phrase awwalu mūsun is analogous with the “wind-turning season” vai-enburē mūsun, mention later below, which is a noun-participle-noun phrase and again not a genitive [‘idāfa’] construction in Dhivehi. Also, the translation is supported by the wording of 9 dispatches out of which 4 say that the Sultan hoped the Governor will grant leave for the ship to sail back “awwalu mūsumu-gai” [in the first season’]; 2 say “avaha° mūsumu-gai” [quickly during the season’]; one has “mūsumu-gai” [during the season’]; and one says “daturu avas kuravvai” [‘[that it is hoped the Governor will] cause to hasten the [return] journey ’]: “A New Light on the History of Maldives” (pp. 424–529). The comparative analysis of these nine diplomatic dispatches spanning over a century (1722–1824) demonstrates that the term was understood and used to reference a complete seasonal period rather than just its commencement.
9 I have tried in vain to obtain the “original” photocopies of the transcripts printed in the New Light on the History of Maldives, but the Ministry of Culture and Heritage, the Maldives Archives and the Dhivehi Academy all said they don’t have them. According to the book, the Maldives’ History Committee sent committee member Mr Adnan Hussain to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) in 1959 to obtain Maldivian historical documents. Mr. Adnan Hussain travelled to Colombo and visited the Museum of Ceylon’s Library and the Ceylon Archives in Nuwara Eliya and obtained photocopies of letters sent by Maldive kings to the Dutch and British governors in Ceylon. The photocopies were brought to Malé, transcribed word to word and printed in the A New Light on the History of Maldives (pp. 424–529).
10 Maldives' History Committee. 1958–1966. Dhivehi Tārikha° Au Alikame°; A New Light on the History of Maldives. (2nd ed, 1990), National Centre for Linguistic and Historical Research. Male', p. 443.
11 It appears the Sultan encountered this Dutch ship while he was not in Malé and while the Dutch ship was heading towards Malé and then to Colombo.
12 It is interesting that Maldivian scribes of the 18th century were still spelling the loanword ‘governor’ in its Portuguese rendition of “governador” (كوندور); almost 200 years after the Portuguese were thrown out of Maldives.
13 from Dutch sloep(e); Eng. sloop: a small sailing boat with one mast.
14 The Maldivian scribe has spelt sloop as سلف [salaf] while in standard Arabic it is سَلُوب [salūb].
15 “By old-time Maldivian Law, or long standing usage, all Wrecks on the Maldives were invariably held to ‘Royalty’ – the exclusive property of the Sultan”, Bell, H.C.P, The Máldive Islands. Monograph on the History, Archæology, and Epigraphy with W. L. De Silva, Colombo 1940. p. 59.
16 The sloop was returned to Colombo during the “awwal al-mawsim” (first season) prior to the letter's dispatch in May 1760. This aligns with our understanding of the Maldivian “awwalu mūsun”, which likely occurred between November 1759 and March 1760.
17 The letter is dated 1131 of the hijra corresponds to 1724–1725 CE which is an error since Sultan Muīn al-Dīn (the first) reigned from 1799 to 1835 CE . If the correct date was 1231 of the hijra, then it corresponds to 1821 or 1822.
18 Tibbetts, Gerald R., Arab Navigation in the Indian Ocean before the Coming of the Portuguese: Being a Translation of Kitāb al-fawā'id fī uṣūl al-baḥr wa'l-qawā'id of Aḥmad b. Mājid al-Najdī. London: The Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1981. First published 1971, p. 360.
19 Tibbetts, Arab Navigation p. 362.
20 Kalēfān, Mūsā Malim, Al-īqāẓ fi ta’līm al-alfāẓ, Calcutta, 1937.
21 Ibn Mājid describes al-Rishā, also known as Batn al-Hūt, as a fiery and auspicious lunar mansion, being a red and bright star in the belly of the northern Pisces. Ibn Mājid particularly notes its usefulness in latitude measurements, especially for measurements in the Damani wind at nightfall.
22 Tibbetts, Arab Navigation p. 119.
23 Tibbetts, Arab Navigation p. 95.
24 Tibbetts, Arab Navigation pp. 96–98.
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